Published in Scientific Papers. Series E. Land Reclamation, Earth Observation & Surveying, Environmental Engineering, Vol. XIV
Written by Roxana-Elena FRÎNCU, Carmen Otilia RUSĂNESCU, Gheorghe VOICU, Gabriel Alexandru CONSTANTIN, Elena-Denisa PREDESCU, Sabrina Maria BĂLĂNESCU
Lithium-ion batteries dominate electrochemical energy storage due to their high charge–discharge efficiency, thermal stability, and safety. With an average lifespan of 3-5 years, their growing end-of-life volume poses environmental and resource management challenges. While recycling efforts have focused on high-value metals, electrolyte recovery remains underdeveloped. This review compares pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and direct recycling based on literature from 2015–2025, evaluating metal recovery efficiency, energy demand, CO2 emissions, environmental impact, and technological readiness. Hydrometallurgy emerges as the most viable current method (>90% recovery, ~800 kWh/ton energy use), while pyrometallurgy, though industrially established, has high energy requirements (~2,200 kg CO2/ton) and poor lithium recovery. Direct recycling shows strong sustainability potential by preserving active material structures yet faces scalability challenges from feedstock variability and process standardization. Advancing sustainable recycling will require innovation in automation, standardized materials, and robust policy frameworks to support a circular economy for critical raw materials.
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